Zimmerman (1990) suggested that the empowerment theory represents an enigma. According to Rapport, "[Empowerment] is difficult to define positively because it takes on a different form in different people and contexts" (as cited in Zimmerman, 1990). On the contrary, Wasserman (1991) stated, "Empowerment, the latest educational buzzword, slips into our mouths as easily as vanilla ice cream" (p. 239).

Though empowerment may appear as a new or undefined concept, its theories have been at the center of research for some time. For example, "empowerment education" was proposed by Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988) as "an effective health education model that promotes health in all personal and social arenas" (p. 379). The program's three-stage methodology was developed from the writings of Brazilian educator Paulo Friere: (1) listening (a continual process) as a means of understanding perceived issues of the community; (2) a participatory dialogue of the perceived issues, using a problem-solving methodology; and (3) action or the positive changes envisioned in stage two dialogue (as cited in Wallerstein & Bernstein, 1988). The first step, listening and understanding the felt needs of the community, assumes equal partnership among the community members to identify the problems and priorities within a community. Listening allows community members to become involved in stating these felt needs at all stages of the program and may be more likely to continue after the organized program ends.

The second step, participatory dialogue about the investigated felt needs, is encouraged by using problem-posing methodologies. Through the use of experiential learning activities such as role plays, stories, slides, photographs, and songs, discussion participants project emotional and social responses to issues being presented. Facilitators provide group leadership by leading participants through a five-step questioning strategy that moves discussion from personal to social analysis and action levels. Participants are asked to (1) describe what they see and feel; (2) as a group, define the various levels of the problem; (3) share similar experiences from their lives; (4) question why this problem exists; and (5) develop action plans to address the problem.

In the third step, positive changes that were envisioned during the dialogue stage are acted upon. Participants test out their analyses in the real world. This begins a process of action and reflection. Further action is taken after participants reflect upon the results of actions taken during previous experiences. As participants learn from their collective attempts to produce change, they are empowered and become more deeply involved in removing barriers that impede change (Wallerstein & Bernstein, 1988).

Similarly, Louis Raths' Needs Theory, Values Theory, and Thinking Theory were developed in the 1940s and 1960s, respectively. Taken together, the three theories "represent a powerful and effective means of empowering children" (Wasserman, 1991, p. 237). Needs Theory, developed using the works of Freud and Dollard, emphasizes human beings' need for emotional security and the frustration that results when emotional security is inappropriately withdrawn. Values Theory suggests that the lack of a well-defined value system or purpose in life results in maladaptive behaviors. Raths' Thinking Theory proposes an association between children's "thoughtless" behaviors and their lack of adequate thinking experience (Wasserman, 1991).

Morris (1998) suggested that the key to empowering youth involves collective action by numerous groups, including the government, nongovernment organizations, media, educational institutions, community organizations and programs, youth peer groups, and young people themselves. Similarly, Petoskey et al. (1998) stated that "personal empowerment must be more than individual improvement of skills or increase in self-esteem. If the individual is truly unable to exert control over the circumstances in his or her environment, attempts to change the psychological outlook of the individual can actually intensify the awareness of and feeling of powerlessness over life circumstances" (p. 149).

Schulz, Israel, Zimmerman, and Checkoway (1995) suggested that empowerment refers to an individual's ability to make decisions (self-efficacy) and involves development of the individual's understanding and influence over the personal, social, economic, and political forces affecting situations in life.

Zimmerman (as cited in Bernstein et al., 1994) described empowerment as having several underlying assumptions. First, empowerment is a continuum in nature; someone could have more or less of it. Empowerment is not dichotomous; measures and indicators of empowerment must be sensitive to varying degrees of being empowered. A second assumption is that empowerment is a developmental construct. An individual can be empowered at one point and powerless at another. Third, all people have the potential for empowerment. Not only is empowerment possible for the most disenfranchised, but it is not automatic for the most resourceful and well-supported individuals. Fourth, empowerment is specific for the population and context of the situation. Empowerment is not the same for all people in all settings. Finally, empowerment is multilevel in nature. This means that at individual, organizational, and community levels, empowerment is concerned with and measured by very different factors. Consequently, a global measure of empowerment may not be possible or appropriate because it is theoretically inconsistent.

As reported in a paper titled, "Youth Empowerment in the New Millennium: The Commonwealth Plan of Acton on Youth Empowerment to the Year 2005," youth are empowered when they feel they have or can create choices in life, when they are aware of the implications of their choices, when they make informed decisions freely, when they engage in action based on their informed decision, and when they become accountable for the consequences of their actions (as cited in Morris, 1998).

Service learning recently has been proposed as a meaningful avenue for youth empowerment (Ogden & Claus, 1997; Zoerink, Magafas, & Pawelko, 1997). Brendtro and Ness (as cited in Zoerink et al., 1997) defined service learning as "the planful use of volunteer activity for enhancing a student's personal and educational development" (p. 129). Service learning also may serve to reduce youths' feelings of alienation.