Table of Contents

The Case for Youth Empowerment

Behaviors That Contribute to Intentional and Unintentional Injuries

Contemporary Views of Youth Empowerment

Review of Research on Youth Empowerment

Implications for Health Education and Health Promotion Among Youth

Promising Empowerment Initiatives

Conclusion

References

There is a transformation occurring in health promotion. The traditional risky health behavior prevention strategy has been to create "problem-free youth." The goal of a new strategy-the youth development and empowerment approach-is "fully prepared youth," i.e., youth who are empowered by knowledge to make healthy behavior choices.

Because tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of disease and death in America, and because it is, before addiction occurs, a personal health choice based on available information, and because health-related decisions made early in life are strong determinants of future health, this issue of Tobacco Control Research Report examines the need for youth empowerment. It presents some contemporary views on empowerment, reviews the literature on youth empowerment research, and describes two youth empowerment initiatives that address some of the major issues facing American youth.

The concepts of youth empowerment and advocacy have been applied in a variety of contexts, although there is, as yet, no concensus definition of either term. Bernstein, Wallerstein, Braithwaite, Gutierrez, Labonte, and Zimmerman (1994) defined empowerment as "a means for gaining power on the personal, interpersonal, and political levels . . . power involves experiencing oneself as an effective and capable person" (p. 283).

Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988, p. 291) defined empowerment as "a social action process that promotes participation of people, organizations and communities in gaining control over their lives in their community and larger society." Empowerment is not having the power to dominate others, but having the power to act with others to promote change.

According to Brazilian educator Paulo Friere, an accurate definition of empowerment would include terms such as improved self-concept; critical analysis of the world; and identification with members of a community participating in, organizing for, and carrying out environmental change. For Friere, these concepts constitute the critical elements of empowerment (as cited in Petosky, Van Stelle, and De Jong, 1998). Based on his writings, "empowerment education" places people in a group effort, shows them how to identify their problem, enables them to assess the social and historical roots of the problem, and allows them to envision a healthier society, thus empowering them to develop strategies to solve their problem.

Such community/group participation enhances a person's belief in their ability to influence change in personal and social realms. Empowerment education targets individual, group, and structural change. Through empowerment education, individuals within groups develop the motivation and skills that enable them to advocate for social reforms. The central method used, consciousness raising, allows the group to develop identity and support, reflect on and specify problems, and develop plans of action. Empowerment "has come to represent efforts to foster bottom-up social change through consciousness raising, self-help, capacity development, and political action" (Simons-Morton & Crump, 1996, p. 291). In this definition, empowerment includes prevention as well as community connectedness, self-development, improved quality of life, and social justice.

Igoe (1991) noted that "a review of the literature suggests the meaning of this concept is not clear and no general consensus exists concerning the criteria that must be met in order for everyone to agree that empowerment has taken place. 'Self-reliance,' 'personal responsibility,' and 'self-care' are terms that appear most frequently in the behavioral health literature as referents for empowerment . . ." (p. 56).

Advocates for Youth, a youth empowerment organization devoted solely to preventing pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV among adolescents, suggests that advocacy involves supporting a cause and engaging others to support it, much like the definition from Friere's writings. For Advocates for Youth, youth-related advocacy goes further. It attempts to build public awareness and support for youth programs, improve local and national policies affecting the lives of young people, and ensure that youth initiatives receive adequate and sustained funding.

The lack of a concensus definition of youth empowerment and advocacy has not impaired current research, but it could impede the development of clear, concise public policy statements, which could be detrimental to the implementation of health promotion programs based on empowerment and advocacy principles.